Англ.яз. Теоретическая грамматика (курс 1). Часть 1

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: To say that something is meaningless is not to deny it meaning, it is to give it a meaning – albeit a rather empty one. Nihilism is simply one way of constituting the world, not a refusal to constitute the world at all.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: So it is the second that I care about. And with respect to the second some claim that quantum mechanics somehow refutes it.

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Continue the sentence: It is in the places where it challenges us that

• we have a chance to grow.
• gives many forms of dualism their anti-scientific flavor; from the fact that science hasn’t yet explained that mind and the mind body connection it is concluded that science can’t explain the mind and the mind-body connection.
• ownership could be a matter of convention, such that to own something is to have ownership of it according to some rules (the conventions), which lay out in more detail what conditions, physical or otherwise, grant and transfer ownership.
• are so many conventions, both existing and possible, that for any object we could find some convention under which I own it and another under which I don’t.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The ontologist has no good answers to these questions. He has many bad ones of course – bad answers seem popular in the defense of philosophy. He might say that he has some special insight into the nature of the world that his ontology reflects.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Pleasure is fleeting while happiness has a kind of stability. Which is not to deny that there is connection between the two; perhaps repeated pleasurable experiences give rise to happiness.

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Define if the sentence is simple. А) Nineteenth-century workers, however, recognized that the native tradition of phonetics in ancient India was vastly superior to Western knowledge; and this had important consequences for the growth of the science of phonetics in the West. В) As might be imagined, this perceptive Indian grammatical work has held great fascination for 20th-century theoretical linguists. Подберите правильный ответ

• А — нет, В — нет
• А — да, В — да
• А — нет, В — да
• А — да, В — нет

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: To really engage in that debate we need to make free will part of the stakes. So what is free will in the context of this debate?

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Continue the sentence: And it is through such options that our philosophy improves. Now this is certainly not to say that, every time we find something that challenges

• what we currently think, we should change our minds.
• ownership could be a matter of convention, such that to own something is to have ownership of it according to some rules (the conventions), which lay out in more detail what conditions, physical or otherwise, grant and transfer ownership.
• argue that something can’t be done or can’t be explained by science requires some understanding of the things involved, and to show that this understanding rules out the proposal.
• to possess something that you do not own, and to lack possession over something that you do own; if it were impossible there would be no such thing as theft.

Continue the sentence: We create significance,

• gives many forms of dualism their anti-scientific flavor; from the fact that science hasn’t yet explained that mind and the mind body connection it is concluded that science can’t explain the mind and the mind-body connection.
• we constitute it – we don’t find it. However, there is a dangerous ambiguity lurking in this brief description.
• that in some way consciousness and the mind must reduce to or be explainable in terms of the physical; in other words, that materialism is essentially correct and dualism essentially mistaken.
• are so many conventions, both existing and possible, that for any object we could find some convention under which I own it and another under which I don’t.

Continue the sentence: But what does it mean to say that something is meaningless? To call something meaningless is not to leave it exactly as

• that in some way consciousness and the mind must reduce to or be explainable in terms of the physical; in other words, that materialism is essentially correct and dualism essentially mistaken.
• if the law changes so does who owns what. Secondly, ownership could be defined in terms of the popular or prevailing attitude, such that you would only own something if it was the consensus that you owned it.
• ownership could be a matter of convention, such that to own something is to have ownership of it according to some rules (the conventions), which lay out in more detail what conditions, physical or otherwise, grant and transfer ownership.
• it was, it is to look at it in a certain way.

Continue the sentence: At best such a philosophy is useless, and harmful if we take it seriously,

• to possess something that you do not own, and to lack possession over something that you do own; if it were impossible there would be no such thing as theft.
• argue that something can’t be done or can’t be explained by science requires some understanding of the things involved, and to show that this understanding rules out the proposal.
• since it erects barriers to revising our mistaken beliefs.
• gives many forms of dualism their anti-scientific flavor; from the fact that science hasn’t yet explained that mind and the mind body connection it is concluded that science can’t explain the mind and the mind-body connection.

Define if the sentence is simple. А) Thirdly, there is in the rules or definitions (sutras) of Pāṇini a remarkably subtle and penetrating account of Sanskrit grammar. В) The construction of sentences, compound nouns, and the like is explained through ordered rules operating on underlying structures in a manner strikingly similar in part to modes of contemporary theory. Подберите правильный ответ

• А — нет, В — да
• А — да, В — нет
• А — да, В — да
• А — нет, В — нет

Continue the sentence: It is to deny the existence of meaningful

• argue that something can’t be done or can’t be explained by science requires some understanding of the things involved, and to show that this understanding rules out the proposal.
• if the law changes so does who owns what. Secondly, ownership could be defined in terms of the popular or prevailing attitude, such that you would only own something if it was the consensus that you owned it.
• relationships between it and other things.
• gives many forms of dualism their anti-scientific flavor; from the fact that science hasn’t yet explained that mind and the mind body connection it is concluded that science can’t explain the mind and the mind-body connection.

Continue the sentence: In other words, “meaningless” is itself a

• that in some way consciousness and the mind must reduce to or be explainable in terms of the physical; in other words, that materialism is essentially correct and dualism essentially mistaken.
• argue that something can’t be done or can’t be explained by science requires some understanding of the things involved, and to show that this understanding rules out the proposal.
• to possess something that you do not own, and to lack possession over something that you do own; if it were impossible there would be no such thing as theft.
• meaning that can be given to things.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: What a work of art creates is some new perspective, some new idea, some new thought crystallized into physical form and inserted into the public sphere. This is how even a photograph can be creative – an act of creation – in the artistic sense; through the photograph some beautiful image is made physical and public that previously existed only privately in the mind of the photographer.

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Continue the sentence: But every time we are faced with a challenge that we take seriously it gives us something to think about, and if we are wise

• are so many conventions, both existing and possible, that for any object we could find some convention under which I own it and another under which I don’t.
• enough then we will change our views in response to these challenges exactly when doing so would better our philosophy.
• to possess something that you do not own, and to lack possession over something that you do own; if it were impossible there would be no such thing as theft.
• argue that something can’t be done or can’t be explained by science requires some understanding of the things involved, and to show that this understanding rules out the proposal.

Continue the sentence: This looks very much like giving meaning to it,

• ownership could be a matter of convention, such that to own something is to have ownership of it according to some rules (the conventions), which lay out in more detail what conditions, physical or otherwise, grant and transfer ownership.
• if the law changes so does who owns what. Secondly, ownership could be defined in terms of the popular or prevailing attitude, such that you would only own something if it was the consensus that you owned it.
• like taking up an attitude towards it, like interpreting it.
• to possess something that you do not own, and to lack possession over something that you do own; if it were impossible there would be no such thing as theft.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Class dismissed! But the problem isn’t so easily solved. The obvious answer simply raises more questions. Why do we want the things that we do? Should we desire them?

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Define if the sentence is simple. А) The term hē grammatikē technē (“the art of letters”) had two senses. В) The anomalists, who concentrated on surface irregularity and who looked then for regularities deeper down (as the Stoics sought them in logic) bear a resemblanceto contemporary scholars of the transformationalist school. Подберите правильный ответ

• А — да, В — нет
• А — да, В — да
• А — нет, В — да
• А — нет, В — нет

Continue the sentence: Although if that were the case it would take only two contradictory authors to keep us busy, since after reading the first

• that in some way consciousness and the mind must reduce to or be explainable in terms of the physical; in other words, that materialism is essentially correct and dualism essentially mistaken.
• gives many forms of dualism their anti-scientific flavor; from the fact that science hasn’t yet explained that mind and the mind body connection it is concluded that science can’t explain the mind and the mind-body connection.
• the second would be a challenging new viewpoint to adopt, and then the first would be again, and so on.
• are so many conventions, both existing and possible, that for any object we could find some convention under which I own it and another under which I don’t.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Ontology, like philosophy in general, is an activity – something that philosophers do. The practice of ontology produces a system of categories, a division of the world into distinct kinds of things. What these categories are supposed to reveal is debatable.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In any case, through “the philosopher as scientist” we are encouraged to understand the task of the philosopher as basically the same as that of the scientist, but with a different subject matter, and with mental experiments (a.k.a. intuitions) in place of physical ones.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Why are desires connected to happiness? Are they the only source of happiness? What these further questions illustrate is that to successfully grapple with this problem we need an account of the nature of happiness.

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Continue the sentence: We know that we are far from perfect, and we seek

• to possess something that you do not own, and to lack possession over something that you do own; if it were impossible there would be no such thing as theft.
• ownership could be a matter of convention, such that to own something is to have ownership of it according to some rules (the conventions), which lay out in more detail what conditions, physical or otherwise, grant and transfer ownership.
• argue that something can’t be done or can’t be explained by science requires some understanding of the things involved, and to show that this understanding rules out the proposal.
• to find out how we are defective.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Perhaps weak souls may simply give up at this point and conclude that on the basis of this dilemma that meanings of some kind must be intrinsic after all.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In other words, if we think about it we can hardly help but give some meaning to it.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The questioner obviously lacks this insight, if he is raising such questions, and so this answer doesn’t go far. Since some special insight is about the only way to justify claims about the fundamental nature of reality that are not obvious to everyone the ontologist often retreats at this point.

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Continue the sentence: Where it tells us that we are wrong is

• where we are presented with a new way of looking at things.
• that in some way consciousness and the mind must reduce to or be explainable in terms of the physical; in other words, that materialism is essentially correct and dualism essentially mistaken.
• if the law changes so does who owns what. Secondly, ownership could be defined in terms of the popular or prevailing attitude, such that you would only own something if it was the consensus that you owned it.
• are so many conventions, both existing and possible, that for any object we could find some convention under which I own it and another under which I don’t.

Define if the sentence is simple. А) As soon as Sanskrit became known to the Western learned world the unravelling of comparative Indo-European grammar ensued and the foundations were laid for the whole 19th-century edifice of comparative philology and historical linguistics. В) Whereas in ancient Chinese learning a separate field of study that might be called grammar scarcely took root, in ancient India a sophisticated version of this discipline developed early alongside the other sciences. Подберите правильный ответ

• А — нет, В — нет
• А — нет, В — да
• А — да, В — нет
• А — да, В — да

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Despite my inclinations that is not the definition of free will that I will be using here.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: But neither can we assert that they lack such relationships, because that is a significant fact on its own, which is also to say that they have meaning intrinsically (the meaning of being “meaningless”).

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Continue the sentence: It should challenge what

• that in some way consciousness and the mind must reduce to or be explainable in terms of the physical; in other words, that materialism is essentially correct and dualism essentially mistaken.
• to possess something that you do not own, and to lack possession over something that you do own; if it were impossible there would be no such thing as theft.
• we think to some extent.
• argue that something can’t be done or can’t be explained by science requires some understanding of the things involved, and to show that this understanding rules out the proposal.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Ontology is something of a fad in philosophy; sometimes it is regarded as the core and foundation of metaphysics, and at others it is held up as an example of what not to do. But what is ontology?

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: I of course am committed to them being wrong about that, because I am committed to the claim that philosophy is completely independent of scientific fact, which means that a scientific discovery can neither support nor refute a truly philosophical claim.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The problem, however, stems not from the fact that meanings are really intrinsic, but that to describe something, to understand it, we have to take up an attitude towards it.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: So let’s first get clear about what we mean by happiness. I think we all know what the term “happiness” means, but I suppose that there is no harm in making sure that we are all on the same page. Happiness then is a pleasurable feeling, which can be described as an emotion or as a state of mind.

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Continue the sentence: But the opposite is really the case. Philosophy that is intuitive is rarely worth reading; we are only bettered by philosophy that

• arguments for dualism are, at their core, arguments from ignorance.
• gives many forms of dualism their anti-scientific flavor; from the fact that science hasn’t yet explained that mind and the mind body connection it is concluded that science can’t explain the mind and the mind-body connection.
• ignorance is one that proceeds from the fact that we don’t know how to do or explain something to the conclusion that it can’t be done or can’t be explained.
• strikes us initially as unintuitive.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Art, on the other hand, does not necessarily have to reflect anything. Some art is non-representational. Other works picture scenes that have never occurred outside of the artist’s imagination.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: This raises the question of what things are like then before we give them meanings. In a way the question cannot be properly answered. We cannot say that they have significant relationships to other things, because that is to say they have meaning intrinsically.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Ontology is presented as merely a study of concepts, or of language, or of the forms of experience. These answers are equally unsatisfying, this time because they make ontology significantly less interesting, and possibly not philosophy proper at all.

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Define if the sentence is simple. А) There are three major ways in which the Sanskrit tradition has had an impact on modern linguistic scholarship. В) Even though the study of Sanskrit grammar may originally have had the practical aim of keeping the sacred Vedic texts and their commentaries pure and intact, the study of grammar in India in the 1st millennium BC had already become an intellectual end in itself. Подберите правильный ответ

• А — да, В — нет
• А — нет, В — нет
• А — нет, В — да
• А — да, В — да

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: But before I can discuss that matter it is first necessary to talk a bit about what free will is. There are many definitions of free will. Some, including myself, take free will to be essentially the power of self-determination or self-causation.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: In other words, one must have the ability to be an uncaused cause (interestingly giving people a property that was classically reserved for the divine).

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Science is out to capture the facts about the world, and the closer it comes to reflecting those facts the better we judge it to be.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: What is meant by this definition is that to be free one must have the ability to make a meaningful choice which is not fully determined by the preceding physical facts.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: The second is the denial of a certain kind of free will. The first is philosophically irrelevant because it is a purely scientific matter concerning what the best mathematical model for describing observed events is.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Others of a less metaphysical bent say instead that the categories reflect fundamental divisions in the world. In any case the results are taken to be deep and important in some way.

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Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Such a view is a compatibilist view, because it entails that the question of whether we have free will is independent of whether the universe is deterministic.

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Continue the sentence: It is commonly thought that being intuitive,

• or agreeing with common sense, is a virtue in a philosophical theory.
• in this paper are twofold: first to illustrate how I see the common arguments for dualism, and thus the common forms of dualism, as lacking; and secondly to describe a form of dualism that manages to avoid those problems.
• that in some way consciousness and the mind must reduce to or be explainable in terms of the physical; in other words, that materialism is essentially correct and dualism essentially mistaken.
• dualism seems unscientific or anti-scientific; it takes one of the phenomena we find in the world and says that it is off limits to science, that science will never be able to explain it.

Define what syntactic role the underlined word plays in the sentence: Subjectively happiness is a kind of “primary good”, meaning that we enjoy happiness for its own sake. If someone asked us why we liked being happy we couldn’t explain it to them, we like happiness without having a reason for liking it.

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